Educational Technology in the Classroom Essay

The face of pedagogy has evolved through time with the emergence of the technological age in the 19th century. As new technologies have been developed in order to enhance and produce efficient working environments, educational institutions, especially early childhood education, have slowly adapted several technological tools in order to facilitate the teaching-learning process. Learning available technological advancements in early childhood education (ECE) and understanding how to incorporate them in the teaching process interests me because of the complex and specialized characteristic of ECE. Children are always curious about the things around them, that is why they love exploring and discovering things that are new to them. Applying technology in the classroom setting would be instrumental in teaching them many concepts that would be difficult to teach in the real-life environment. Moreover, employing technology would allow teachers to design challenging instructional materials that may be easily accessed by children. Synopsis One Buckleitner, W. (2000). â€Å"Techno Tools for Assessment. † Teaching with Technology. ProQuest Education Journals. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from ProQuest LLC. Website: http://proquest. umi. com. ezproxy. aut. ac. nz/pqdweb? index=4&sid=2&srchmode=1&vinst=PROD&fmt=6&startpage=-1&clientid=7961&vname=PQD&RQT=309&did=62927618&scaling=FULL&ts=1207829807&vtype=PQD&rqt=309&TS=1207829837&clientId=7961 (1) This article emphasizes the importance of technology in tracking and monitoring the growth and progress of children within the educational institution. It asserts that making use of technology allows the teacher to properly document the developments of each child, with the use of pictures and videos for instance, in order to involve and show the parents each milestone that their children accomplish in the school. Technology is also relevant during the assessment phase. The author continues to list several technological tools that from the lowest priced to the highly expensive, while still remaining important in assessing the developments within each child. Cameras, whether disposable, Polaroid, or digital, as well as digital video cameras, are useful in documenting the activities that children get involved in within the school. This would help in showing the parents how their children have grown from day one until the end of classroom instruction. Cassette recorders may be used to record sounds, such as songs, poems, and sounds learned throughout the year, in order to know what new knowledge they have learned regarding sound reproduction and music. Scanners may be used to keep records of pictures and artworks that children have made all throughout the year. This would help in assessing the creativity of each child. Communication with the parents at home may be facilitated by establishing an online website where the teacher and the parents may contact each other. Moreover, online websites may be used to send newsletters and other information that are in a need-to-know basis for the parents. (2) This article is important for teachers who want to learn about simple and affordable technologies to use in the classroom setting. Cameras, video cameras, scanners, sound recorders, and online websites, are simple devices that teachers can easily use. Moreover, assessment and evaluation has gone up a higher level with the options of using technologies, as well as in involving the parents with the education of their child. (3) The technological gadgets suggested by the author benefits the learner, although they do not get to explore and manipulate each gadget, because it focuses on the assessment phase of learning which assists in the identification of needs, demands and follow-throughs of children. Moreover, parents get involved in the education of their children, allowing them to know how they can assist in teaching their children more at home. (4) These technologies may be implemented by providing sound recorders for each student from the beginning of the class and let them record sounds that they have never learned before. During activities, which bring out their skills and abilities, the teacher should be able to take pictures and videos for documentation. Paper works done by the students should all be scanned accordingly for records sake and assessment in the future. At the end of the teaching instruction, the online website should be put up in the World Wide Web, and communicated to the parents in order for them to gain access to the website and start communicating with the teacher whenever possible. Synopsis Two Scoter, J. V. , Ellis, D. , Railsback, J. (2001). â€Å"Technology in Early Childhood Education. † Northwest Regional Educational Technology. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from NETC. Website: http://www. netc. org/earlyconnections/byrequest. pdf (1) The research study has explored the pros and cons of the employment of technology to early childhood education. The argument lies on the capacity of technological tools to provide for the basic needs of children, including their physical, social, emotional, mental, and language development needs. However, researchers could not deny the contributions that technology will make for facilitating teaching and learning for early childhood education. These contributions being teaching children how to learn by autonomy, wherein they learn by doing things by themselves, and the visualization of difficult concepts to teach and for children to grasp. The different developmental stages in early childhood education are also discussed in order to identify the goals and needs of children in each stage. The author continues to discuss several technologies to accomplish these goals and needs. The computer is the most important technological tool that should be used in early childhood education. Moreover, several softwares are available for computers, such as softwares that may be used in constructing examinations, drills, and practice tests. (2) The information in this article is important for teachers who wants to understand the benefits and advantages of technological tools within the classroom. This would assist them in making evenhanded decisions on whether to employ technological use for classroom instruction. Moreover, teachers who want to utilize technology within the classroom setting are informed of the goals and objectives of each child developmental stage in order to design technologies that are able to meet these goals and objectives. (3) The technology discussed in the article, such as the computer and software programs benefit the learner because of wide-range activities that it can develop for learners, such as drills and tests. This would allow teachers to produce numerous automated exams that would help students widen their knowledge and exercise their minds in order to retain information learned throughout classroom instruction. Moreover, computers are able to provide numerous functions such as music, videos, pictures, access to the internet, multimedia applications, language assistive technologies, etc. (4) Implementing what I read from the article takes time and careful planning. Planning should be done to lay out activities that will be suitable for particular developmental stages in children. After planning, the teacher is now ready to incorporate technologies according to the level of understanding and need of each child. This would be established by teaching children the basics of the computer and letting them handle it for better learning and understanding. Synopsis Three Wilford, S. (2007). â€Å"Tuning in to Tech. † Scholastic Early Childhood Today. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from ProQuest Education Journals. Website: http://proquest. umi. com. ezproxy. aut. ac. nz/pqdweb? index=12&sid=1&srchmode=1&vinst=PROD&fmt=6&startpage=-1&clientid=7961&vname=PQD&RQT=309&did=1257130811&scaling=FULL&ts=1207834444&vtype=PQD&rqt=309&TS=1207834584&clientId=7961 (1) The proper implementation of technology, so as to ensure positive learning outcomes, is the focus of this article. The author acknowledges the fact that technology does hold negative learning outcomes, especially to young children. In addition, the author continues to discuss the inadequacy of technologies if used improperly and minimally. Therefore, the author reveals steps or guidelines for making the most of the positive effects on learning that technologies may yield to early childhood education. These steps or guidelines include the use of clear digital images with large informative captions, images that show children who display moral values that students might learn, records of visuals and creative works done by students in the computer and student portfolios, taking videos of meaningful activities, and videos of theatrical performances done by children in order for them to imitate and gain insights about acting and being creative. (2) The article is relevant in reminding teachers on how to properly use technologies due to the fact that when these technological devices are used inadequately, then it will yield negative learning outcomes for young children. Aside from reminding teachers of this valuable information, it also provides important tips on how to maximize technology and utilize it appropriately. (3) This valuable piece of information benefits the learner in such a way that it educates the teacher. Educating teachers, especially on the proper use of technology, is significant in teaching with the use of technology properly, therefore, resulting to positive learning outcomes. (4) Implementing this piece of information in classroom instruction starts with committing such information to memory in order to remind oneself of how to use technology effectively in the classroom. Synopsis Four Hertzog, N. & Klein, M. (2005). â€Å"Beyond Gaming: A Technology Explosion in Early Childhood Classrooms. † Gifted Child Today. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from ProQuest Education Journal. Website: http://proquest. umi. com. ezproxy. aut. ac. nz/pqdweb? index=43&sid=1&srchmode=1&vinst=PROD&fmt=6&startpage=-1&clientid=7961&vname=PQD&RQT=309&did=872146761&scaling=FULL&ts=1207837036&vtype=PQD&rqt=309&TS=1207837110&clientId=7961 (1) The focus of the research paper is to identify and reveal the importance of technology for the early childhood classroom and the benefits that they provide for the children. Several examples were given in order to illustrate real life situations wherein the incorporation of technology in classroom instruction was successful. UPS is an educational institution, which utilizes technology during classroom instruction. The institution attests to the positive learning outcomes that technologies yield within the children. Aside from the children, the teachers also benefit from the functions that technology provide to facilitate teaching and lighten their burden of keeping records and assessing the children’s growth and development. Moreover, technologies also enhance communication lines of the educational institution with the parents. Indeed, the children’s use of technology have gone beyond only gaming to learning valuable concepts that technology offers. (2) I think the article takes on a general approach to the study of technology as a means of facilitating learning for early childhood education. Not only does it discuss the benefits of technology on children, but also its positive effects to teachers and the parents as stakeholders who are involved with the education of young learners. Through this article, children, teachers, and parents learn to appreciate the benefits and advantages that technology provides in order to enhance the learning of their children. Moreover, other educational institutions may learn from the testimonies of UPS. (3) This article does not particularly talk about a certain technology that benefits the learner but it discusses the importance of technology in order to provide meaningful and challenging learning experiences to children. Moreover, it informs people on the importance of technology to the holistic development of children, professional career of teachers, and the involvement of parents to education. (4) The article talks about the need for educational institutions to implement technological tools itself and does not illustrate how to implement them. For educational institutions who are deciding whether to incorporate technology into their classroom instructions shall be guided by the advantages it would provide for learners, teachers and parents. Thus, encouraging them to implement technology when possible in order to promote quality learning. Bibliography Buckleitner, W. (2000). â€Å"Techno Tools for Assessment. † Teaching with Technology. ProQuest Education Journals. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from ProQuest LLC. Website: http://proquest. umi. com. ezproxy. aut. ac. nz/pqdweb? index=4&sid=2&srchmode=1&vinst=PROD&fmt=6&startpage=-1&clientid=7961&vname=PQD&RQT=309&did=62927618&scaling=FULL&ts=1207829807&vtype=PQD&rqt=309&TS=1207829837&clientId=7961 Hertzog, N. & Klein, M. (2005). â€Å"Beyond Gaming: A Technology Explosion in Early Childhood Classrooms. † Gifted Child Today. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from ProQuest Education Journal. Website: http://proquest. umi. com. ezproxy. aut. ac. nz/pqdweb? index=43&sid=1&srchmode=1&vinst=PROD&fmt=6&startpage=-1&clientid=7961&vname=PQD&RQT=309&did=872146761&scaling=FULL&ts=1207837036&vtype=PQD&rqt=309&TS=1207837110&clientId=7961 Scoter, J. V. , Ellis, D. , Railsback, J. (2001). Technology in Early Childhood Education. Northwest Regional Educational Technology. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from NETC. Website: http://www. netc. org/earlyconnections/byrequest. pdf Wilford, S. (2007). â€Å"Tuning in to Tech. † Scholastic Early Childhood Today. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from ProQuest Education Journals. Website: http://proquest. umi. com. ezproxy. aut. ac. nz/pqdweb? index=12&sid=1&srchmode=1&vinst=PROD&fmt=6&startpage=-1&clientid=7961&vname=PQD&RQT=309&did=1257130811&scaling=FULL&ts=1207834444&vtype=PQD&rqt=309&TS=1207834584&clientId=7961

Should Countries Encourage Tourism?

Nowadays, it is almost a routine, that people every year go to holydays. Often they travel to the places abroad. These places are often very popular and well-known. Even though these places are popular, the countries still promote them and want more people to come. This is because tourism is very important for the economy but not in all cases for the citizens. If so, should countries encourage tourism? Firstly, tourism leads to the development of the country. The desire to attract tourists to a certain area often encourages governments to improve local facilities which is beneficial for both, citizens and tourists. On the other hand, the development of the country must be somehow controlled and planned in such a way, it does not destroy the natural beauty of the country. Over-development leads to ugly, crowded tourist spots and environmental damage. Consequently, the development if necessary but is has to be done thoroughfully. Secondly, tourism has some positive and negative effects on a country’s economy. Many people claim that tourism is an important source of income. This is illustrated by the fact that in the touristic countries are very few possibilities to find a job not connected with tourism. Nevertheless, country’s economy may become so dependent on tourism that it is weakened and when something unexpected happens, for example a natural disaster, that tourist do not arrive for a long time, the country is helpless because of lack of resources. Thirdly, tourism greatly influences the citizens’ culture. Tourism allows people to experience other cultures. They may see how foreigners behave, what clothes they wear or what are their customs. However, this impact of tourism may destroy the local way of life. For instance the customs of the local people may simply disappear and be displaced by those brought by the foreigners and the local uniqueness changes into cultural mixture. To conclude, there are arguments to both, that countries should and should not encourage tourism. On the one hand, we have economic advantages and possibilities to experience other cultures. On the other hand, tourism overused may lead to the economic weakness of a country and to permanent changes of the local culture.

John Donne’s poems: Holy Sonnet 10 and Meditation 17 Essay

Donne’s view of death is not one of a cynic. He is a man who regards death not as the final battle of life, but rather in the Christian sense, of it being just a transfer of the soul from the earthly plain to its final destination. He considers death not to be an event to be held in fear, but one that is to be understood. He believes so strongly in this philosophy that in Sonnet 10, he instructs people not to fear death. He insults death, personifying it as a person who has a far greater reputation than he has earned. He tells death not to pride itself in its reputation of a â€Å"mighty and dreadful† horror even though regarded so by some, as it is nothing more than an extended sleep. He reduces death to a very low level, associating it with poison, war and sickness. He further insults it by commenting on how it does not operate with free will. It is confined to the boundaries set by fate, chance, Kings, and desperate men. Moreover, drugs of poppy and simple charms can provide the same sleeping effect , if not better; and sleep is such a great source of pleasure, why would anyone be reluctant to embrace it? Death is not something to be feared or to be held in awe. â€Å"One short sleep past, [humanity wakes] eternally† to the beauty of afterlife, which is far better a life than any huma n is experiencing presently. In contrast, In Meditation 17, Donne does not imply that death is feared by some, or that it is thought to have monumental power. He comments more on the effect it has on humanity. He compares life to a book, comparing each person to a chapter in this great book of life. Again, he regards death not as the end of life, but a beginning of a new one. He parallels it to the translation of each chapter to a different language, the language of the afterlife, with each chapter awaiting the inevitable translation. And since death is just a translation, wisdom can, and must be gained from it. Donne regards death not as a loss to the person afflicted by it, but as a loss to humanity as a whole, who have lost a small, but vital part of the community. Therefore, the burden of death must be shared by all, and by sharing this grief, it is Donne’s opinion that a treasure of God’s goodwill and knowledge will be gained. Donne thinks that death is not that great of a hurdle. It is a mere stepping-stone in the process of eternal happiness. God uses death only as the transition from Earth to heaven, so it is something to be awaited and to strive to prepare for by all.

The Physical Therapist and the Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Physical Therapist and the Law - Essay Example [internet]). As a matter of fact, it is good for injury prevention in youth sports. (Hareyan, Armen. Injury Prevention. Physical Therapists Offer Tips For Injury Prevention April 10, 2007. EmaxHealth. [internet] Accessed February 11, 2010. Available at: ). In the State of Florida, the practice is covered by Chapter 486 of the Florida Statutes (2009) under Title XXXII of the law. (CHAPTER 486. PHYSICAL THERAPY PRACTICE. Title XXXII For one to be qualified as a licensed massage therapist, there are certain requirements to comply with. As basic requisites, the applicant must be at least eighteen years of age and must be of good moral character. For her or his professional qualifications or credentials, the applicant must meet any one of the three given circumstances which are (a) the applicant is a graduate from a physical therapy school duly accredited under the tutelage of the Commission of Recognition of Postsecondary Accreditation or the United States Department of Education upon her or his graduation, and has passed to the satisfaction of the Board of Physical Therapy Practice the American Registry Examination before 1971 or a national examination approved by the said Board of Physical Therapy Practice, or (b) the applicant has obtained a diploma from a physical therapy program in a foreign country or has educational qualifications equivalent to what is mandated of physical therapists in the United States d uly acknowledged by the proper agency accredited by the Board of Physical Therapy Practice, (Section 486.031 Physical therapist; licensing requirements. Ibid) or (c) the Board of Physical Therapy Practice has caused the issuance of a license to the applicant through the Department of Health without having taken any examination when she or he (the applicant) presents proof to the satisfaction of the Board of Physical Therapy Practice that she or he has passed the American Registry Examination before 1971 or an examination in physical therapy before a similar legally authorized examining board of another state, the District of Columbia, a territory or a foreign country where the standards for licensing physical therapy professionals are considered by the Board of Physical Therapy Practice as of the same level or category as those in Florida. (Section 486.081 Physical therapist; issuance of license without examination to person passing examination of another authorized examining board; fee. Ibid). In this third criterion, the professional may design or denominate herself or himself as a physical therapist or a physiotherapist or a P.T. She or he shall also pay to the Department of Health the appropriate fee not exceeding one hundred seventy five dollars as determined by the Board of Physical Therapy Practice. Physical therapy practice and police power Physical therapy being a career or a calling in Florida as in all other states,

Diana Coole and Samantha Frost argue that social and political enquiry Essay - 1

Diana Coole and Samantha Frost argue that social and political enquiry needs a new ontology which incorporates matter. Why What problem are they trying to address and how persuasive is their solution - Essay Example Coole and Frost insist that emerging realities in the fields of sciences, arts, geography, and other disciplines are sufficient proof that matter contains more active and viable qualities that previously thought. A precise understanding of the case made by the two thinkers regarding the need for ontological reviews of political and social inquiries should begin with an assessment of the new qualities, which they assign to matter. Coole and Samantha argue that matter is an excess and a force. By this, they imply that it can influence actions, activities, and processes in as many areas as it is represented. Furthermore, the two philosophers adopt the position that matter has some form of relationality and an element of difference. According to their argument, these qualities make matter active, unpredictable, self-creative, and productive. These new perceptions of matter foster alternative views regarding the influence and relationship between matter and discourses such as political and social realities. Coole and Frost engages significantly with the problem of dualism, which makes it problematic in dealing with the cultural theory. Within the context of new materialism, the two authors seek to entrench the view that the mind is essentially a material entity. By this position, new materialism challenges the views adopted by transcendentalism and humanism, which emphasize on the duality between the mind and the body. New materialism suggests that the body is the object of the mind and the two are not entirely separate but relate in one uniform continuum. It is important to regard new materialism in light of the different aspects that relate to it. For instance, by emphasizing on the primacy of the material, this new approach promotes the matter to a level that articulates various concerns that relate to the characteristic of various discourses. Other proponents of the position adopted by Coole and Frost suggest that matter feels, suffers,

Anthropological Puzzle Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Anthropological Puzzle - Assignment Example The hunter who catches the large animal has the best part of the meat. Power also translates to their marriage traditions and male regard for large families. 2. What does the AAA statement on Race say in regards to biological vs. socio-cultural constructs of race? Give 2 specific examples. Why does this document say that that construct ‘race’ was invented? It says the ‘construct’ invented to separate by visible differences those who had power over others before DNA studies could show there were more differences within groups than between them. So, to create a labor force, control politics and channel wealth, differences that grouped people by physical similarities were a handy way of deciding who would rule and who would obey. But rather than biological or phenotypic differences, it is socio-cultural traditions that define groupings of people into nations or tribes. The way people behave and bring up their children determines what ‘race’ they belong to. Divisions were obvious among European American, black African slaves, and indigenous Indian people. In places like Europe, racial myths were exploited to gain dominance over Jews, Romanies, and homosexuals under the power of white Aryan supremacists. She showed how weak or deformed babies were left to die, and mothers displayed no grief or regret, a practice widespread through the community. Most mothers abandoned children with no chance of growing into useful adults or those who would be a drain on energy and resources. This heartless way seemed at odds with Western notions of natural maternal love. She saw the mothers were hardly able to look after themselves and had multiple pregnancies with many infant deaths, so the culture allowed women indifference for the ones that died, reserving love and care for the ones that lived. It made her redress the generally held assumption that maternal instinct is universal and innate.

Critique on another students project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critique on another students project - Essay Example Thus, we have a Prioress who is a perfect exponent of table dining manners, a Monk who has amassed a huge fortune and leads an aristocratic life and a miller whose expertise lies in telling lascivious tales. Though many critics have pointed out the so-called anti-feminist presentation of Chaucer's characters, they are largely true of a country where moral ethics were dwindling, largely due to the coming of the Renaissance and also because the pseudo chivalry of love, honour and fame of the medieval times were beginning to loose ground. The Canterbury Tales are emblematic of a society that was under going a change: a society that had become decadent and was on the verge of a huge re-birth, to be brought about by the Renaissance. If Canterbury Tales operates to be largely a social documentary of its times, John Lydgate's The Fall of Princes operates within the popular medieval genre of "advice to princes" literature. Deriving from French sources, Lydgate offers his readers the various conflicts experienced between the autocratic Church and the state authority. It not only anticipates the problems of the Divine Rights Policy, whereby a king ruled upon his subjects as the religiously chosen one, but also shows the element of corruption which had become synonymous to the medieval Churches.

Gun Control and Crime in US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Gun Control and Crime in US - Essay Example Having the knowledge of these issues, there seems a necessity for self-defense. There are Government bodies to help and assist at times of need. However, at that instance it is people, who need to take care of themselves. This was the reason for giving license to self defense gadgets. The Government bodies with intention to increase security and reduce crime rate started giving licenses to these gadgets, guns in particular. However, this decision should be critically examined. It is important to understand if guns for personal security have really decreased crime or have become a catalyst for crimes. This article critically examines the gun laws in the United States. It also addresses the issue whether guns have increased or decreased crime rate in United States. It focuses on some key events that urge changes to be made for future. A case study for the same is given. The later part of the article throws light on the possible alternates and suggestions to be incorporated to reduce cr ime, that is, gun control to reduce crime. The article tries to analyze the relation between gun control and crime in The United States and gives a possible solution for this situation. Crime in United States is closely associated to gun violence and homicides. Crime rate is generally measured by the number of crimes reported per 100,000 people. (US justice stats, 2006) Crime rates have seen a sharp rise from the late 1960's.However recently the crime rate in United States is steady. A study revealed that the crime rate of United States as of 2005 is around 3991 per 100,000 residents. (US justice stats, 2006) Violent crimes in United States are much higher than other countries. Minorities, young and financially less favorable positioned are known to commit crimes. 6 out of the 17 known homicides in California in 2005 are by the poor. Around 35.3% of homicides took place here. (US justice stats, 2006) The year 2005 has recorded to be the safest in the past thirty years in United States history. Nearly 49% of murder victims were African Americans in 2005. It was recorded that 79% of murder victims throughout were males. (US justice stats, 2006) Gun laws in United States are independent to every state. There are a few state level bans for guns like shot guns and rifles. License holders have permits and only a few states allow for an Inter state permit. Alabama does not address the issue of carry permits where as Alaska does give a provision for it (Kasler, 2000). California has the strictest laws in United States that bans guns that have a thumb hole stack, a flash suppressor etc (Harrott, 2001). Almost 60% of states have the carry permit law and others excepting a few have very convenient licensing strategies that can be misused. Case Study: Hindering Crime or Causing Havoc Guns were given to people in order to facilitate self-protection that is defense against anyone who attacks them. This was supposed to ensure safety to life and hindrance to crime. However the Million dollar question is the effectiveness of this act. The free hand given

A Capstone Experience(Market Position Analysis)2 sony corrporation Assignment

A Capstone Experience(Market Position Analysis)2 sony corrporation - Assignment Example Stakeholders across various segments of the market have overtime ascertained that the products and services of Sony Corporation are of high quality. Because of the high quality of goods and services that they produce, the prices of the products are rather expensive. For this reason, therefore, various stakeholders have normally argued that the target audience for Sony Corporation is the high-income earners (Luh, 2003). This is majorly because both the low and middle-income earners normally tend to focus on satisfying their basic needs after which they are left with fewer funds that do not meet the purchasing price of most of the products of Sony Corporation. Similarly, the organization has focused its sales on those living in the urban regions. Even though some of their customers originate from rural regions, they normally feel left out. Due to the event that Sony Corporation is always interested in ensuring that it reaches its customers as fast as possible, the organization has overtime adopted appropriate strategies that have helped them in delivering their products and services to their customers within the designated period. The first strategy that the organization has always adopted is advertisements and promotions. These have often fostered efficient communication between the customers and the Corporation. Similarly, such moves have normally provided answers to the customers regarding the features of the different types of products that the organization offers to its larger customer base. Despite most of the products of Sony Corporation being available in Supermarkets and Various retail stores, the organization has always used different distributors in various towns. In regions where they enjoy a large share of the market like Mumbai and New Delhi, the Corporation has four different distributors. These are Son y World and Sony Centre, who just as illustrated above play an integral role in ensuring that the connection between the customers

Earliest Microsoft operating systems to the present-day release of Essay

Earliest Microsoft operating systems to the present-day release of Windows Vista - Essay Example Rowland Hanson, marketing head of Microsoft suggested that Windows would be a very appealing name to the customer when compared to â€Å"Interface Manager†, which was supposed to be its name. Windows 1.0 was rather an operating environment than a complete operating system; it extended MS-DOS and shared the intrinsic problems and flaws of the latter. It included a simple word processor called Windows Write, an appointment calendar, a simple graphics painting program called Windows Paint, a computer terminal, a clock, a control panel, a notepad, a card filer, and a RAM driver. The MS-DOS Executive and a game called Reversi were also included in the first version. On the 9th of December 1987 the second version of Microsoft Windows 2.0 was released, and gained more popularity than the first version. â€Å"Windows 2.0 supported the Video Graphics Array (VGA) display System, which allowed you to use 16 colors at 640x480† (Shinder, 2003, p. 5). It achieved more popularity than the first version because of the new Microsoft graphical applications namely Word and Excel for Windows, and because of its inclusion as a run-time version. Windows 3.0 version which was released in the year1990 was quite successful because apart from improved capabilities to the native applications it also allowed the users to a more advanced multitask based on older MS-DOS software when compared to Windows/386 due to the introduction of virtual memory. The third version of Windows gave strong competition to the user interface of the Macintosh computer. This version of Windows was compatible with any Intel processor from 8086/8088 to 80286 and 80386 and could run in Standard, Real and 386 Enhanced modes, and was the first version to run Windows program in protected mode, even though 386 enhanced mode kernel was an improved version of the kernel protected mode in

Change process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Change process - Essay Example There was a formal procedure and organisation but the informal organisation structure was much stronger. All the processes of the organisation but these are highly influenced by numbers of factors like interest of particular director and people directly or indirectly related to the process. This was reducing the enthusiasm for the people who really wanted to work. People working with the organisation from considerable time knew about the work culture and the influences these bosses had. The organization's functions were divided into five major tasks and under five departments. These are administration, marketing and sales, production and finance. The business environment was such that the subordinates are more concerned of being boss's favourites than their jobs. Politics and competition was prevalent in the organisation due to different types of bossism. The survival in the organisation was depending on how well you can maintain relationship with the bosses. This was having bad impact the environment, work culture, innovativeness, customer focused approach and many others. This kind of organisation is defined as Culture & 'God' by Handy. It is symbolised by Web or wheel. It is described as a culture where power radiates from (the person or person at) the centre. Similarly in this confectionary company, decisions are centred on the family members rather than to address specific problem. These people had experiences of doing business in hundred years old ways. However things started changing when a new CEO took over after his father. This person was dynamic and open for changing the culture of the organisation to improve business process. He started with separating different key businesses and objectives of the organisation. He hired a new marketing head with the expectations of changing organisational culture and environment. The new Marketing Head has twenty seven years of vast experience and had handled some of the major brands in the past. The appointment of this person resulted in different types of resistance from all over the organisation. The new CEO handled it carefully. He ensured all the family members and extended family members that he is looking forward for more businesses which this person can bring as he has knowledge and experience of the market, new trends and different other aspects. The new Marketing Manager started his work with a formal meeting in an informal way. He tried to change the formal structure. Changing formal structure helps to break the line of authority and create a new one. He did not ignore the informal structure and ensured that people are occupied with new ideas, enthusiasm to work and have some pressure to exert excellence. He used different strategies according to the nature and orientations of the subordinates. He used mentoring for those who were willing to work, Mentoring is a process to influence people and show them a way. It provides a direction and help to solve various issues. Mentoring is being trusted by people, actively supporting and guiding people to achieve personal and professional goals. (Johnson, Gerry and Scholes 2002). The Marketing Head changed the existing functional teams according to the market and job requirements. The existing employees resisted this course of action and complained to their bosses. However the support of CEO was so strong for the Marketing head that no one could do

Motherhood and slavery Essay Example for Free

Motherhood and slavery Essay As a capable black woman and as a mother, Sethe feels obligated to provide Beloved, whether her daughter or not, a bed to sleep in and somebody there not worrying you to death about what you got to do each day to deserve it (Beloved 67-68). Therefore, her job as mother, as caretaker, as life-giver and life-maintainer is never-ending, and because it is never-ending, it has the potential to take her to her grave. Beyond that, Sethe fears losing Beloved before she can make her understand that worse than killing her own daughter, —far worse—was what Baby Suggs died of what Ella knew, what Stamp saw and what made Paul D tremble. (Beloved 251). Although not entirely true, for Sethes best thing is herself, the one thing about herself that she values, that slavery has not taken away from her is motherhood. This, for Sethe, is maintaining a mental survival for her children, preventive medicine for the ills of slavery. As Kubitschek notes, On the plantations black womens nurturance—from the physical (nursing milk) to the metaphysical (energy and patience)—is used up primarily in working fields and tending white children (166). But for Sethe, who was able to have her children with her, the major means of protecting children from slavery is to value them and to communicate this value to them (Kubitschek 166). This is a sacrifice Sethe and many mothers, traditional and nontraditional, are more than willing to make. This becomes especially painful in part two of the novel. When Sethe thinks about Beloved and her own actions, she says she will explain it all to Beloved, reflecting, How if I hadnt killed her she would have died and that is something I could not bear to happen to her Ill tend her as no mother ever tended a child, a daughter. Nobody will ever get my milk no more except my own children (Beloved 200). Here we can see transforming and destereotyping potential of Sethes actions. She goes on thinking of how she will change, how she can mother now as a free woman. In this case, it is as if Sethe must be a nontraditional, unstereotypical mother in order to accomplish the traditional mothering role she wants to attain. She also reflects on her faults when Beloved returns, how she was distracted by Paul D and should not have been. But it is at this point that she demonstrates the difference between man and woman, between father and mother. Kubitschek argues that In the twilight area of an illegal freedom, Sethe has immediately, upon being summoned back to slavery, acted on a slave definition of mothering: presence is all (167). Being together, even if dead together, was enough. Presence is all. Lucille Fultz cites Marsha Darlings interview with Morrison in which Morrison asserts: Under the theatrical conditions of slavery, if you made that claim that you are the mother of these children you were claiming the right to say something about what happens to them. Morrison terms Sethes commitment to her children an excess of maternal feeling, a total surrender. This surrender is configured in Sethes desire to protect her daughter from the ills she suffered as a female slave. (40) Sethe takes her protection of her children one step further. Fultz contends that Through desire and knowledge Sethe achieves subjectivity for herself and her children. She refuses to subscribe to the system that treats her and her family as objects (38). She especially needs to make up to Beloved, perhaps because she killed her, or perhaps because the death separated them as Sethe had been separated from her own maam. Kubitschek asserts, Still defining motherhood as keeping her children with her, Sethe cannot reject the ghosts presence (167). Perhaps it is more a loss of a time component than the actual murder component that Sethe regrets. Thus, because she spent so little time with her own mother, she must spend as much time with her daughters as possible, which leads to their month of playing together. Morrison visually paints their month, noting the star-loaded sky, sweet milk, string puzzles in afternoon light, shadow pictures in the gloaming, a garden of vegetables and flowers (Beloved 240). All of this serves Sethes purpose until Beloved decides it is not enough, and Denver realizes that her mother could die and leave them both and what would Beloved do then? (Beloved 243). Beloved has no life of her own, no name, and never did. She was never called anything but the crawling already? girl and Beloved as her gravestone marked her. Not a name to cling to. Morrison tells us that Everybody knew what she was called, but nobody anywhere knew her name (Beloved 274) because she is a representation of life, many lives, but does not get the opportunity to live her own. She can be the woman during the Middle Passage; she can be the woman in slavery; she can be the woman who escaped slavery; and she is all of these. She embodies each and every woman of the African American motherline and is also linked to Sethes own mother who, like the murdered granddaughter, remains nameless (OReilly 86, 87). But as a result, she is never herself. Morrison poetically crosses three generations of women, who learn and demonstrate survival skills, in a very matriarchally religious trinity—mother: Sethes mother; daughters: Sethe and eventually Denver; and holy ghost: Beloved. Each fights for survival of herself, and of future generations through different means. Sethes mother rebels and is hanged, but impresses upon her daughter what truly matters—the self and a sense of connection with ones own matrilineal line. Sethe escapes slavery with her children and is willing to kill them so that they may survive maintaining their natural selves. Beloved is reincarnated. This is her survival, but it also leads to Denvers ability to survive on her own, which further protects and preserves the potential for future generations. Essentially, all these women can fight for survival at this point in the novel because there is a sense of belonging, of necessity. Sethe gives herself inherence when she places complete necessity on herself for the responsibility of her children. Morrison describes Sethe as a free woman, as a free mother, writing, Freeing yourself was one thing; claiming ownership of that freed self was another (Beloved 95). But that is what Sethe is able to do. In the Clearing, she claims herself. At this point, she is finally able to attach herself to the self that she can create. As a result, she can also, hi her mother role, help begin to claim selfhood for those around her. Thus, she returned to 124, opened the door, walked in and locked it tight behind her and when Sethe locked the door, the women inside were free at last to be what they liked, see whatever they saw and say whatever was on their minds (Beloved 198, 199). This is all part of Sethes role as mother. She defends others, her own girls especially, with her whole body, her whole home. Yet, the one thing she does not immediately understand or establish for herself, until Paul D makes her realize it, is that Beloved, her crawling already?girl, was not her best thing. Sethe is a woman destined for survival early on because of the actions she takes and the decisions she makes as a mother, but she cannot see her personal value beyond powerful motherhood until the end, when she is a free woman: free of slavery, free of Beloved, beginning to be free of the past, free of the blame of murdering her daughter to save her, and free of the blame of making the ink schoolteacher used to assess their animal characteristics and measurements (Beloved 271). Then and only then does she fully comprehend the destereotyped notion of best thing as herself. Redefining motherhood for herself, Sethe also redefines the foundation of humanity. By making her character commit that horrible act, Toni Morrison asks her reader: is the inhumanity in Sethe’s killing of the baby or is it in the horrible system that drives her to commit this act? Playing with the reader’s mind, Morrison dislocates scenes of the slaves’ beating that are prevalent in narratives of slavery. For the image of the master holding the stick, she substitutes that of the slave committing a violent act on her own child. From now on the slave is given the opportunity to have a voice. Why murder her baby? With this infanticide, Sethe’s writing of history undermines the ideology that founded the white masters. This ideology, based on a racial and gendered duality, locates humanity within the white race. It is this vision and appropriation of humanity that Morrison attacks. If humanity lies in the empowerment of the white man who engages in a violent exploitation of the non-white, driving the latter to kill her child, where does inhumanity stand?

Importance Of Civil Engineering in Britain

Importance Of Civil Engineering in Britain Civil Engineering is the key to many of the issues affecting our daily lives. Civil engineers solve most problems and make our live easy and enjoyable. Civil engineering covers several specialized sectors including: buildings of all kinds as well as transport and communications infrastructure, production, storage and distribution of electricity gas and water. Most everything civil engineers do affects our daily lives in many ways. The operation of the infrastructure that surrounds us is the foundation of our society. This infrastructure includes roads, airports, railroads, buildings, bridges, water and wastewater treatment plants, sewers, drainage, flood control, water supply, landfills, and many other facilities. All these are the jobs for Civil Engineers. This essay is about importance of civil engineering in Britain and roles of civil engineering in Britain. I will do this by explaining water sewers, buildings, roads, stadiums development, wastewater treatment plants, energy development, york eco depot, airports, railroads, bridges and, sewers, drainage, flood control and water supply. Civil Engineers saved time, money and resources by demolishing an old seven-storey building in Londons Buckingham Palace Road and replacing it with a new building that re-used the foundation of the original building. This technique reduced construction risks associated digging new foundations in London clay near the Circle and District Underground line. If more new piles had simply been installed between existing ones this would have restricted the future development of the site. Great care was taken to prevent water produced during drilling from swelling the clay and reducing the strength of the foundations. Other challenges included testing the structural integrity of the original piles and identifying their exact location as the original pen and ink drawings only showed the building as designed, not as it was actually constructed. The essential engineering work to ease congestion around Heathrow Airport would have caused chaos along a 23km stretch of the M25. M25 is regarded as on of the busiest motorway in Europe, visit [http://www.bbcel.co.uk/news/631_key-milestone-complete-on-m25-junction-16-23 ]. As well as ensuring construction work did not create traffic jams engineers also had to find clever ways of widening the road within existing highway boundaries and without using any new land. Getting land from the motor ways central reservations as well as the hard shoulders and verges of the motor ways, the civil engineers increased Junctions 12 to 14 from four lanes to five lanes as well the Junction 15 from four lanes to six. Around ninety percentage of material used for this construction was recovered from the site and recycled. This technique not just reduced the congestion but also transport needed for the construction. On the night, when the natural awareness in so small and traffic queues are so small, the line closures are scheduled. This project was completed in 2005 before the time allocated without being seen the traffice congestions expected before the project has been started. Engineers worked together to define unique characteristics of the Wembley Stadium and create a new English national football stadium that just looks like the original old building. While most modern stadium are orientated North-South so that the players seen well on afternoon sun, this new stadium is orientated East-West, just like the original Wembley (thanks to knowledge of the civil engineers). Visit http://www.wembleystadium.com/buildingwembley for more information regarding this project. On sunny days the South side of the roof is retracted so the whole pitch is in sunlight. This avoids valuable seconds of play being lost to broadcasters as television cameras adjust from bright sun to shadow. The iconic arch spans 315m, are visible for over 20km, carries 70% of the roof load and removes the need for any structural columns. This means that, unlike the old stadium, all 90,000 seats has unobstructed views of the pitch. [http://www.wembleystadium.com/buildingwembley] To solve the crisis Hampshire and its partners created an action plan to reduce waste, increase composting and recycling, support anaerobic digestion, adopt recovery technologies and create up to five new facilities to process up to 200,000 tones of waste annually. The new Chineham Energy Recovery Facility is exceptional because engineers altered a standard building format to fit the small 1.4-hectare site of a former Basingstoke incinerator. The facility produces up to 8MW of power of which 1.25MW is used to operates the plant. The remaining 6.75MW is sufficient to supply 10,000 homes with electricity each year. The building is partly clad in light-reactive coated aluminum that changes color depending on light levels and weather to appear grey, blue or purple. Semi-opaque polycarbonate cladding allows natural light into the building and reduces electricity use. The tipping hall has a living roof covered with plants that change color seasonally and require no maintenance. Visit www.v eoliaenvironmentalservices.co.uk/Hampshire for more information regarding this project. Beddington Zero Energy Development, (BedZED) is regarded as an eye-catching and affordable housing community in South East England. Civil engineers worked to reduce the energy demands of 100 homes and 2,500m2 of commercial space, according to http://www.bioregional.com/what-we-do/our-work/bedzed. The civil engineers reduced the demand for energy with renewable resources including passive solar heating and wood-fuelled combined heat and power. These energy sources resulted by reducing fuel carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere to as well fossil energy development to zero. While BedZEDs tenants are assured an efficient energy lifestyles by using the techniques used by engineers to reduce the amount of energy they require. Visit www.bioregional.com for more information regarding this project. The civil engineers used their to help City of York Council to move its department for housing, waste and roads from an expensive to an attractive new cheaper building. The civil engineers knowledge resulted in using a technique that maximizes natural light and ventilation by using sensors that detect high temperature, rain or high wind and open and close windows accordingly. Rainfalls from the roof of the building is collected in what is known as the underground tanks and used to wash vehicles. This resulted by reducing water consumption around fifty percentage. The warehouse construction also reduces energy use by up to seventy-six percentages and the Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions by up to one hundred and fifty five tones annually if compared when building to a traditionally built, air-conditioned office of the same size. The warehouse also includes an Interpretation Room that could be used for education of the community in the City of York Council. Visit [www.carillionplc.com ] for more information regarding this project. My conclusion is that the water we drink, the pavement we drive on, the air we breathe are the work of civil and environmental engineers literally surrounds us all. Transport systems join our communities together. Road, rail, air and sea networks span the world. All these are the work for civil engineers. Civil Engineers help us trade, travel, exchange ideas and information, and gain employment, healthcare and education. Our civilization is developing, but so too is our demand for electricity. Civil engineers are committed to protecting our natural resources, designing structures that use as little energy as possible. When it comes to providing energy for the entire planet, engineers are using nature to meet the needs of today and tomorrow. We should be proud of our civilization today, and its many great achievements. By applying the latest technologies, civil engineers can save structures and monuments from the distant past so that they can still be enjoyed well into the future. Civil engineers are using designs and materials that will protect our natural and cultural heritage for future generations. The civil engineering knowledge cannot be regarded as a new subject. It has been around for so many hundred years back to the Romans (for their ancient Roman civilization), Egyptians (best known for their building of the pyramids) and Mayans (the Mayans are people from America that have a history or around three thousand years) who built great civilizations before us, our civilization relies more than ever on the civil engineers whom the work on all the environment in and around us, such as the road, the bridges, the libraries, the buses, the trains, the aero planes, the water we consume in our every day life, the toilets that we use, the cars we drive, the houses we sleep, the shelters that we cover from the cold and hot and the many more things that we use in our daily life without them the life would now have been as the one we have today.

Superstructure In Marxist Cultural Theory

Superstructure In Marxist Cultural Theory The oft-cited passage from Marxs preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy in which he states that the economic structure, or base, of society is its real basis, on which arises a legal and political superstructure (source); contains perhaps the most contentious aspects of Marxist theory. The implicit ideas within these few sentences concerning the relationship between the base and the superstructure have excited scrupulous analysis and fervent debate from within the Marxist school of thought and by critics and opponents alike. The passage proclaims that it is upon the economic base that all other institutions, norms and practises are constructed. This perception was confronted by those who suggested that the base and the superstructure were best interpreted as having a reciprocal, dialectical relationship in which the base conditions the superstructure but is in turn affected by it. The metaphor was insufficient for later Marxists, such as Gramsci and Lukacs, wh o represent a shift away from the rigid dichotomy of the classical position by placing focus on the realm of the superstructure through concepts such as hegemony and totality. Further still, there were those who proposed a functional reading of base and superstructure (Cohen). Throughout this narrative, the problems with the relative understanding of base and superstructure have been consistently exposed, either by those who attempt to navigate around them through reformulation, or by those who suggest that they cause the metaphor to collapse. Most notably, the notion that the base determines the superstructure is particularly troubling for many critics. There has been a persistent effort to suggest that the relationship between the base and the superstructure involves an element of economic determinism, which represents the most significant problem due to its simplicity. A second problem is the difficulty of separating the base from the superstructure, and defining what constitutes the relations of production. It is the purpose of this essay to make two assertions. The first is that the troubling cause and effect logic is stubbornly common to all formulations of the model, making both practical and analytical application indefensible. The second uses this as the basis for the suggestion that Marxian claims concerning the relationship between base and superstructure are reductionist and that a multi-dimensional approach that respects ideas of complexity would be preferable. According to Marx, in any given historical epoch men collectively organise to produce the goods and amenities that will ensure their survival. In doing this they enter into class-based social relations independently of their will. The economic base is comprised of the sum total of these socioeconomic relations, termed as the relations of production. The base corresponds, or is conditioned by, the forces of production which we may define as the means at the disposal of the actors involved in said relations. Since the cultural and political superstructure arises upon the economic base, it is therefore the historically specific mode of production that determines and characterises the rest of society social, cultural and political processes, ideas, institutions and so on. As the forces of production advance, through technological innovation for example, strain is placed upon the relations of production. Eventually the base is forced to change and since all other aspects of society are d etermined by the base, the superstructure must accommodate this change through change of its own. The superstructure is said to normalise the antagonism inherent within the class-based social relations since they are expressed through political and legal means, thus preventing the masses from recognising the oppression and exploitation that they are subjected to. This conception is the basis for the wider perspective of cultural materialism, which itself is part of Marxs theory of historical materialism. To quote Plamenatz, If the Marxian theory is to be called materialist, it is because it asserts that it is how men produce what satisfies their needs, which determines the general character of the moral, political and legal order p. 277 It is the suspect way in which Marx states not only that but how (Antonio Gramsci Beyond Marxism and Post-Modernism) base and superstructure are related which shall be the main focus of this essay. Before the problems with the relationship are discussed, it is relevant to briefly outline why such an endeavour is of importance, in light of the argument that the spatial image is a convenient way of discussing society from a methodological and analytical point of view; it is not meant to represent the actual complexity of the real world. (Jakabwski, 1976 quoted in Gramsci new introduction) Whilst it is fair to claim that the base and superstructure metaphor can be a useful analytical tool; it also seems fair to suggest that the validity of the model should be rigorously examined against the complexities of reality. It is only by defining the limits of the metaphor that we can know its ability to shed light on relationships between social phenomena, as Marx claims it can. A central issue of the debate surrounding base and superstructure is what our understanding of determination should be. The inescapable criticism that the base and superstructure metaphor reduces cultural theory to a linear form of economic determinism was prevalent from its very inception (olssen), and I would argue that the persistent, simplistic economic determinist logic is a major problem with the base and superstructure relationship. To focus first on the language of Marxs passage, Marx and Engels could have used moderate terminology to merely suggest that there is a relation between production and social activity. However, as Plamenatz notes, Marx and Engels clearly felt it important to say, as they did so repeatedly, that the character of production determines social life. This is characteristic of much of Marxist theory. That history follows a determinable path in which the changes and developments of society can essentially be predicted is a common theme. There is however m uch rhetoric from both Marx and Engels to defend their position by acknowledging that quote from Gramsci that superstructure influences base). As such most modern scholars do not accept such a determinist perspective. Raymond Williams for example, describes it as being the simplest and most basic understanding of the relationship. (source) It may therefore be contentious to state that Marx was strong in his conviction that there is a specifically determined relationship between base and superstructure in its simplest (Williams) form, since he and Engels both expressed ideas to the contrary (source). However what is clear is the primary status of the base (which is also reflected by the centrality of economics in much of the Marxist canon) and the implication of the secondary or subjugated status of the superstructure. Whether or not Marx intended to allow for the idea of reciprocal influence, it is clear that the metaphor tended ultimately to posit primary or first causes in histori cal motion, which would relegate the rest to a secondary, accidental, contingent, dependent status. (Antonio Gramsci Beyond Marxism and Post-Modernism) It is from this that we may confidently argue that the position of classical Marxism is that which favours economic determinism to a significant enough extent to be subject to scrutiny, despite the neo-Marxist claim that economic determinism is not the intended understanding of the base and superstructure concept. The interpretation of determination between base and superstructure as being reciprocal is a common departure from the simple notion of prefiguration, prediction and control. (Williams) Althusser speaks of the relative autonomy and reciprocal action of the superstructure. (Althusser, cited in Lapsley Westlake 1988: 5) The notion that areas in the superstructure can be relatively distant from the base, and retain a relative autonomy from economic determination is the key feature of the Althusserian understanding of base and superstructure. Shifting emphasis away from the base allows for the interpretation that it is in fact not the economic base that is the basis for society but the superstructure, which exercises autonomous influence, in that it exerts pressures on its own terms. In spite of this, to remain true in part to Marxs original thought, Althusser downgrades the concept of autonomy by stating that there is determination in the last instance by the economy. Hall, influenced by Althusser, cites the variety of language in Marxs description of base and superstructure in The German Ideology which varies from connected with to created by and in its action as to suggest that the relationship between economic and non-economic activities need to be seen as interactive and circular. Williams exertion of pressures. Reformulations of the spatial metaphor such as those outlined above are curious in that they seek to account for variety within the superstructure by assigning the idea of autonomy, yet then retrace their steps in a contrived effort to remain true to the original Marxist doctrine. Althusser, Hall and Williams all nod to the complexity of the superstructure and either explicitly or implicitly acknowledge that deterministic attempts to trace clear causal influence between it and the base is problematic, which seems to be the driving influence in their reformulation of the concept of determination, yet the desire to maintain the primacy of the base is pa radoxical in that it undermines the acknowledgement of a complex, autonomous superstructure by yet again suppressing its autonomy through simple notions of economic practise. This is merely sidestepping the issue and is a fragile (Hirst, On Law and Ideology, London 1979, pp. 75-95) attempt to rescue Marx. If we accept the argument that economic determinism is reductionist, then the circular and reciprocal interpretation may be said to be only partially less simplistic. A second significant problem with the base/superstructure distinction is the inability to theoretically separate the base from the superstructure, and the inferiority of the term relations of production to describe clearly what it is that constitutes the base. If it is unfeasible to overcome these problems, any proposed interpretation of the base and superstructure relationship ought to fail. The debate between G. A. Cohen and John Plamenatz is a useful way of navigating these difficulties. Cohen is a proponent of a functional understanding of the base/superstructure relationship. The argument develops from the idea that the superstructure is constructed as a result of its function, which is to maintain the base. The existence of the superstructure is therefore dependent on its ability to develop social norms and practises that are conducive to the base and provide social stability. As part of this interpretation, Cohen seeks to overcome what he calls the problem of legality, which i s a reassertion of one of the criticisms put forward by John Plamenatz (Karl Marxs Theory of History p.235). As Plamenatz (man and society) notes, detailed analysis of the relations of production reveals that the relations are essentially legal in nature, making the base indistinguishable from the superstructure since the superstructure is supposedly the dominion of legality. Similarly, since the base may only be described normatively, it is difficult to assert the sense in which it is separated from the superstructure, as is indicated by the spatial metaphor. Furthermore, Plamenatz identifies that relations of property are supposedly superstructural, yet have considerable influence over the workings and structure of the economic base. He also states that large sides of social life, such as religion or the sciences, cannot be shown to be derivative of the base. Cohens attempt to overcome this is through a reformulation of the base, an ambition which shares parallels with Williams, c entres on whether or not it is possible to arrive at a conception of the base which excluds any normative involvement from law, morality or politics. He therefore sought to purge the base of normative elements, or seek to identify a rechtsfrei economic structure (Lukes) Cohens non-normative base is built upon the distinction between relations of power, which can exist without superstructural interference, and relations of rights. However, Lukes finds his conception unconvincing. According to Lukes, power relations are based on social and moral senses of duty that must exist before power relations can be established. In summary of the debate Lukes proposes that Cohen fails through his inability to present reference to roles within his rechtsfrei that do not presuppose the existence of rights of some kind. For Lukes, then, there is no viable distinction between base and superstructure, rendering the metaphor useless, urging that it is high time that the distinction be consigned to the scrap heap. If we are to involve Williams urge to reconfigure our understanding of the base as a dynamic force, constantly occupied and defined by human activity, and not take the base as an abstract entity that is not necessarily defined by human action, then we must accept Lukes argument and the collapse of the distinction. Gramscis concept of hegemony and Lukacs of totality represent Marxist conceptions of society that are altogether more holistic and need not necessarily be interpreted in terms of a base and superstructure separation. For Gramsci, the sharp separation between the economic sphere and the political sphere was unsatisfactory, since social relations of civil society interpenetrate with the relations of production. (gramscis political thought p.30) He saw the superstructure as being divided into two parts, political society and civil society and argued that political society organises force, civil society is the organiser of consensus. (Canadian journal) Gramsci asserted that the bourgeoisie maintained control in society through ideology, rather than by economic or coercive means. The norms and values conducive to bourgeois control became entrenched as the limits of common sense of the working class, who were therefore distracted from revolution by falsely interpreting their exploitation a s a common good. Still, it is the bourgeois control of economic production that allows them to become the hegemonic class in civil society. Similarly, for Lukacs, the economist assumption that consciousness and ideology were determined by the economy could not be shown to be so, since crises that developed in the economic sphere were not reflected in the consciousness of individuals (Lukacs history and class consciousness 1923). Gramsci and Lukacs were both attempting to mend Marxism in the area in which they felt was most deficient. Economic determinism, for them, did not privilege an understanding of the vast complexity of the superstructure, which as the realm of consciousness and ideology was greatly important to the cause of initiating historic change. As a model, beyond simply calling this relation dialecticalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ it was deficient in examining the multiple ways in which culture and politics or the state produce ideology, authority and power (beyond Marxism and post modernism) They therefore attempted to challenge bourgeois dominance through means that were not strictly economic. While it is more accurate to suggest that the complexity of the superstructure should not be underestimated, in Gramsci and Lukacs ambition to loosen the rigid nature of orthodox Marxism through reformulation, what results is a similarly reductionist or one-dimensional view of society.( The Concept of Cultural Hegemony: Problems and Possibilities T. J. Jackson Lears p.569) A total, holistic view of society will always by nature be insufficient to deeply analyse the variation and complexity of culture, particularly if one seeks to study it through the rather narrow lens of historical materialism, with its association with cause and effect history that has yet to manifest itself. The economic determinism present in the orthodox Marxist interpretation of the relationship between base and superstructure is a problem that is difficult to evade. In attempting to do so most neo reformulations seem hampered in some way, as they seek to transcend the oversimplified nature of the linear perspective but never quite manage to explain or predict the complexity of cultural processes and institutions. The circular interpretation of the relationship is admittedly more attractive than the basic understanding, yet crucially still denies the superstructure the complexity and autonomy that it must be said to have. The work of Gramsci and Lukacs is a significant step forward towards a theory of complexity but is still hampered by the simplicity of seeking to define culture and society through holistic, all-encompassing terms. All formulations seem crude in that they either imply a causal influence strong enough to suggest that the superstructure is mechanically reproduced by th e base, or a causal influence that is not strong enough to strictly retain Marxs original meaning. To overcome this by speaking in terms of the convenience or usefulness of the metaphor as an analytical device seems dangerous to the integrity of the conclusions that may be drawn from it, since it repeatedly has not and cannot stand up to detailed analysis. What should be sought is a view of culture that analyses it without having to refer to a specific agenda, economic or otherwise. It is only by viewing culture on its own terms that we may we hope to go some way to dealing with its complexity.

saint Nicolas :: essays research papers

Ceremonial Speech SPS: To praise Saint Nicholas. CIS: We all know who Santa Claus is and Saint Nicholas the man responsible for all the wonderful things we know him for such as: selflessness, unsurpassed generosity, popularity we can all learn and apply his wonderful deeds to our own lives. Introduction: I. I know that all of you have heard of Santa Claus but how many of you actually know the history behind him? Saint Nicholas was the wonderful man that the legend of Santa Claus derived from. II. Saint Nicholas is known by many names such as: Kriss Kringle, Father Christmas, Santa Claus and the patron saint of young people to name a few. III. I would dare to say that most of you in here today do not know the true story behind the legend of Santa Claus but after today you should understand why Saint Nicholas is undoughtably worthy of praise. IV. We all know who Santa Claus is and Saint Nicholas the man responsible for all the wonderful things we know him for such as: selflessness, unsurpassed generosity and popularity we can all learn and apply his wonderful deeds to our own life. {Transition: Now that we know what Saint Nicholas is known as lets look at what made him worthy of praise.} Body I. Saint Nicholas had the most amazing trait of selflessness. A. Saint Nicholas often went out and distributed presents to the poverty stricken people especially children. B. Saint Nicholas wore a disguise so that no one would notice him because he did not want to receive credit for his good deeds. {Transition: In addition too selflessness Saint Nicholas also displayed unbelievable acts of generosity.} II. Saint Nicholas displayed true generosity in the story of the noblemen and his three daughters. A. The noblemen had no money for his daughter’s dowries; and in those days, a daughter with no dowry had little chance of marriage. 1. Saint Nicholas decided to remedy this by throwing a bag of gold through the window. (All About Christmas, pg.26) 2.Saint Nicholas did this again when the second daughter was to be married. (The Christmas Story, pg.43) B. When the third daughter was to be married Saint Nicholas had to crawl up on the roof and throw the gold down the chimney. {Transition: Now let us look at Saint Nicholas’ unique popularity.} III. Saint Nicholas has proven to be one of the most popular and influential people to have ever lived. A. Saint Nicholas was born hundreds and hundreds of years ago but is still popular today.

A Christmas Memory Vs. The Grass Harp :: essays research papers

The two stories, â€Å"A Christmas Memory† and The Grass Harp are strikingly similar due to the fact that Truman Capote wrote both stories. The settings of both stories are very similar. In The Grass Harp the setting is very sullen: the season is fall, the days are always cloudy, and it is very slow moving in a small southern town. Similarly, â€Å"A Christmas Memory† has dismal and sluggish qualities of a southern, rural community in the dead of winter. The first lines of â€Å"A Christmas Memory immediately establish the sad scene: â€Å"Imagine a morning late in November. A coming of winter more than twenty years ago.† Several elements of the story are parallel: the settings, the nature of the friendships, the rejection by peers, and the characters’ love of nature.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The relationships between Colin and Dolly in The Grass Harp, and Buddy and Cousin in â€Å"A Christmas Memory† are close regardless of the differences in age. In â€Å"A Christmas Memory,† Buddy and Cousin have a large age split: Buddy is seven and Cousin is in her sixties. In The Grass Harp, Colin and Dolly have a similar age difference. But they are close friends, because they do many things together. They lived in the tree together, as well as dancing with each other. Likewise, Buddy and Cousin have a close relationship and do many things do together. Buddy and Cousin make fruitcakes, find a Christmas tree, and make presents for each other. Buddy describes his relationship with Cousin by stating, â€Å"We are each other’s best friends.† Not only are the friendships in â€Å"A Christmas Memory† and The Grass Harp parallel, but the main characters lives are quite.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main character of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  each story is a young boy. In â€Å"A Christmas Memory,† Buddy is the main character. In The Grass Harp, the main character is Colin. He is close to fifteen years old. He has no parents and no friends of his own age. He experiences great separation and sadness in his life. In the same way, Buddy has no parents, and his only friend is Cousin, a woman in her mid-sixties. They are best friends, and Buddy frequently refers to her as â€Å"my friend.† â€Å"My friend has a better haul,† says Buddy, describing his Christmas presents in comparison to Cousin’s. When Cousin as Buddy if he is awake, he responds, â€Å"It is my friend, calling from her room.

Solutions to Global Poverty

There are different solutions to Global Poverty nowadays. Foreign aid is considered one of the most effective because it helps in pioneering new ideas for development and solves the budgeting problem that might ruin even the brightest project. There is considerable scope for improving on the current level of foreign aid, around $120 billion per annum. Another solution is tax recovery. Multinational corporations and wealthy elites minimize tax burdens so that poor countries are denied tax revenues from each of these sources exceeding in aggregate the current level of foreign aid. Besides this, investment in the rural economy always pays off. Rewards of economic growth are to be spent on payments for the poor and for immunisation. Of equal importance to local communities and individual households is greater power to control their own affairs.  Control Key and Word – Text and Graphics. An infusion of accountability through democracy and individual rights creates the environment in which governments come under pressure to end wasteful practices and corruption. However the removal of agricultural subsidies that protect American and European farmers is needed to create a favorable atmosphere for the real business competition to take place. A fundamental reordering of priorities is the surest remedy for the poor, as indeed it may be for all of us in search of a sustainable future. Plenty of issues call for fundamental reform of global governance. Undoubtedly, some other sectors where developing countries struggle for treatment are trade, investment, intellectual property rights, climate change and energy. It’s a well-known fact that Brazil, China and Vietnam are countries with the greatest success in poverty reduction. Only their governments control key sectors of their economies and show little inclination to relax those restrictions on human rights and democratic freedom. That’s why we need to find another solution of this consequential issue.

The Crucible – How does Miller effectively create a sense of tension and conflict between John and Elizabeth Proctor at the beginning of Act two?

Miller effectively creates a sense of tension and conflict between John and Elizabeth Proctor at the beginning of Act two. Act two follows directly on from a very highly charged and climatic note. At the end of act one Abigail and the girls accuse many people in Salem of being witches and a state of hysteria is reached. It is therefore a surprise that act two is not a court scene or trial, merely a domestic scene between John and Elizabeth Proctor. This variation is a good thing I believe as it helps to keep the reader interested and keeps the play from becoming monogamous. This is a very important scene. Miller I believe created this scene and the love interest between Abigail and John Proctor to make the ending of the play far more dramatic. If a significant rift is created between John and Elizabeth, then surely the ending will become more impressive, because as soon as they have conquered their problems and regained trust in each other following John's fight to free Elizabeth, John is hanged. This scene is also important to help us understand Elizabeth's dilemma in act three when Danforth asks her whether John had an affair with Abigail. John is unable to tell her what to say so Elizabeth has to decide for herself whether or not to tell the truth, she is unaware that John has confessed to the affair so denies it happened so as not to incriminate him. Act two helps us to understand that she most definitely did know about the affair and had not forgotten, so therefore is lying to protect John in act three despite their rocky relationship. The audience have already by act two heard only bad words about Elizabeth, so it is likely that they have come to the conclusion that she is not a very nice person. This is due to Abigail bad mouthing Elizabeth and saying that she is â€Å"†¦ a sickly wife† and a â€Å"†¦ cold snivelling woman†. Because we do not meet Elizabeth until later on in the play we only have the opportunity to form an opinion on Elizabeth's character from what Abigail says about her, which is unfortunately all malicious and derogatory. The language used by Miller in the crucible is archaic, rural American. Because the play is based upon events, which took place around 311 years ago, to make it seem realistic it is crucial that miller does use such language. An example of the language used, is when John says to Elizabeth, â€Å"Aye†¦ its warm as blood beneath the clods†, this is definitely not an expression we would use today. Although nowadays we may not understand the language used by Miller perfectly it is important for him to use it in order for the play to become genuine and believable. In his autobiography Timebends, Miller discusses the language he found in the court records. He said that he wanted â€Å"to study the actual words of the interrogations, a gnarled way of speaking† Miller also admitted to unintentionally, â€Å"elaborating a few grammatical forms himself, the double negatives especially†, although Act two is not a court scene I believe that Millers research into the language of the inhabitants of Salem in the 17th Century helped the play to achieve its sense of authenticity. It is important for Miller to create tension within the play to keep the audience interested; he uses this technique in Act two with great affect. The audience is already aware of the Proctors strained relationship following John's affair with Abigail, and Miller highlights the damage that has been done by the affair perfectly in this scene to create a excruciating sense of tension. At the start of Act two Miller using stage directions and has John on his return from the field taste the meal the Elizabeth has been preparing, he is displeased with it so seasons it. This appears at first perfectly normal and harmless to the audience, however when John hears Elizabeth coming downstairs he jumps away from the stove and proceeds to wash his hands. It becomes obvious to the audience at this point that their relationship is so strained that John racked with guilt about his affair with Abigail avoids doing anything at all which might aggravate or offend Elizabeth. This huge effort on John's behalf to not offend Elizabeth is blatant when he tells her that the rabbit is â€Å"well seasoned† Elizabeth gratefully accepts this praise replying that she â€Å"took great care†, this is an awkward scene because both are trying to be friendly to one another but it is easy to see they are uncomfortable in each others presence. It is ironic that John complimented her on the seasoning on the rabbit, since he seasoned it himself; this in particular highlights the conflict between them. At first glance the proctor household appears homely, welcoming and peaceful. John returns home to work and finds his supper ready, cooked for him by his wife who has just finished singing their children to sleep. However this is all very misleading, the conflict between the proctors is highlighted at the very start of act two with the use of monosyllabic sentences from Elizabeth in reply to Johns attempts at conversation. John, full of good intentions, begins to tell Elizabeth about the farm and tries to engage in conversation with her, however she meekly replies to his questions with short, abrupt sentences such as â€Å"That's well†, â€Å"Aye, it would† and â€Å"Aye, it is†. By manipulating the sentence structure Miller is able to show Elizabeth's reluctance to speak to her husband, and highlight the distance and awkwardness present between them. After complimenting Elizabeth on the meal John, talks about the farm and says with a grin â€Å"I mean to please you Elizabeth. And she answers, â€Å"I know it John. † However, before she answers, she pauses, and â€Å"finds it hard to say. † This means that she might not think he honestly wants to please her, or make their marriage work. Since this is quite a dramatic moment, I think that on stage at this moment the lighting should focus on Elizabeth, and if present the orchestra should be silent to emphasize her hesi tation. It becomes very clear in this scene that John is desperately trying to regain Elizabeth's trust. The fact that she is cold and distant towards him creates a great sense of strain and the conflict is plain to see. Miller is able to illustrate this conflict between them by using stage directions, he has John walk over to Elizabeth and kiss her, Elizabeth receives his affection with disappointment, she is still cold and unforgiving. Miller shows us that words are not necessary to convey feelings, the expressions of the actors and their body language is enough and can sometimes be more convincing in a subtle way. When I watched the film made about the play it struck me that in the scene between John and Elizabeth a table had been positioned between them, this acted as a physical barrier. This is actually of great significance and subtly shows the audience that there are obstacles that stand in the way of the proctors, keeping them apart, namely Abigail. Watching the film helped me to see that stage props can be used to great effect, and can often play a significant part in the enhancement of dramatic scenes such as this one. Gradually the tension between the Proctors escalates and soon they are arguing, this is bought about when Elizabeth says â€Å"You came so late I thought you'd gone to Salem this afternoon† to John. We know from the stage directions, which direct the actor's body language that John realises Elizabeth is implying that he went to see Abigail. Miller portrays the tension between them by using exceptionally short sentences that help to show the coldness and curtness that they show towards each other. In this act John and Elizabeth have several blazing arguments and between each argument there is a lull, it becomes apparent that all the personal disagreements and grudges within the town are coming to a head. Like in a crucible, which is a melting pot everything is being brought to the surface and is breaking down, society is collapsing within the town and amongst the town's people. Because Miller builds up several arguments between John and Elizabeth, he prevents this scene from becoming boring and keeps the sense of tension between John and Elizabeth very much alive. Whenever the audience begin to believe that the Proctors have resolved their problems another argument breaks out, this stopping and starting prevents the audience becoming frustrated with the constant squabbling and makes sure the sense of tension and conflict is maintained. The series of smaller outbursts between them then conclude into a huge argument in which Elizabeth says to John † She (Abigail) has an arrow in you yet, John Proctor, and you know it†, this is true, despite the fact that Abigail is in Salem and far away from the Proctors she is still causing arguments between them and is driving a wedge between them. Elizabeth knows that John is still physically attracted to Abigail and that she has a hold on him. She creates a strong sense of conflict because John hates Elizabeth's accusations and resents her for continuing to bring up the past when he simply wants to be forgiven and allowed to have a fresh start and be a good husband to her. It is excruciating to watch this scene between the Proctors and see jealousy, suspicion and mistrust tearing them apart however the tension and conflict created is so strong that the audience feels compelled to watch on. When Hale interrupts the Proctors argument and invades their privacy the sense of conflict between the Proctors eases and the tone of the play and atmosphere changes. John and Elizabeth realise that they must work together to eradicate any suspicions or accusations of them being witches, this causes great tension because it is very hard for them to join forces and act as though nothing between them had happened. Following a huge argument they must help each other and keep up appearances. This is a very subtle and clever way of creating tension. Throughout Act two in the crucible Miller creates a sense of conflict and tension between the Proctors using a number of different methods. Doing this I believe is a brilliant way of keeping the audience interested and making the ending of the book more dramatic. Not only however does this in particular scene help to ensure that the audience wish to watch on, but it also ensures that they understand key events in the play, such as Elizabeth's denial of Johns affair. In act two the audience discover that Elizabeth does know about Johns affair so therefore can work out the later on in the play Elizabeth says that John did not have an affair to protect him, not because she simply did not know. I think that were it not for this scene then the whole of the story would be a lot more complicated and harder to understand. So in conclusion although the tension and sense of conflict that Miller creates between the Proctors make Act two an interesting scene, it also affects the rest of the play and the audiences understanding of events to come as a whole.

Netw360 Lab Week 2

Week 2 Lab Report 1. Read through the lab instructions before executing the lab steps and creating the reports. 2. Follow all procedures in the lab instructions for the items you will need to include in your report. 3. After executing all steps contained in the lab instructions, submit a one Word document for each project containing your report to the Dropbox. Create your reports using the template starting on page 2 and submit it to the Week 2 Dropbox by the due date. Have fun while learning! Thanks Your NameJeret BurnettNETW360, Professor’s Name Mario  Kosseifi Current Date July 15, 2012 Lab #2 Part 1, Antennas Lab Report Case Project 3-1 Antenna Type Using the internet and other resources, research the different types of antennas that are included under the three main categories: omni-directional, semi-directional, and highly-directional. Draw or print an example of each type and summarize when it is used, what is its maximum transmission distance, and it’s advanta ges and disadvantages. Omni-Directional [pic] When it is used?This antenna can be used for indoor and outdoor access points. It is an excellent solution for RV parks, Marinas, Resort Wi-Fi, and other general outdoor area where other wireless access is needed but unable to be achieved by the small antennas on a router. What is its maximum transmission distance? The range of this antenna is 3000 feet. However, a longer rage is possible with additional antennas on the receiving end. Advantages and disadvantages? The main advantage to this antenna is that you can receive wireless signal in areas that were not available before.Everyone has heard of internet â€Å"Cafes†, but with this antenna you could make an internet â€Å"Cafe† literally in the middle of a campground. The disadvantage is that trees, building and hills can reduce the signal and in somecases can completely stop the signal from getting through. Also, to get this antenna high enough to cover some areas the l ength of the coax cable will reduce the signal; thus making the antenna less effective. Semi-Directional [pic] When it is used? Semi-directional antennas are ideally suited for short and medium range bridging.If you want to connect two office buildings that are across the street from one another and need to share a network connection semi-directional would be a good choice. Or if you have a long narrow room where you need coverage throughout the whole room you can mount the antenna on an end wall. This is because the side-to side signal will not travel as far but the forward signal will travel quite far. What is its maximum transmission distance? Semi-directional range can vary greatly but is commonly used in situations that call for a range of a few hundred feet to two miles.Advantages and disadvantages? The main advantage of a semi-directional antenna is that in some cases a semi-directional antenna can provide such a long range coverage that they eliminate the need for multiple a ccess points. The main disadvantage is that if you need coverage over a large open area, such as a cubical office where the entire floor is open, a semi-directional antenna would not be the best choice because not every computer will receive coverage. Highly-Directional [pic] When it is used?It’s main usage is for point-to-point communication links where wired or other directional wireless coverage is not possible. What is its maximum transmission distance? Highly-directional antennas can operate at a range of up to 35 miles. Advantages and disadvantages? The main advantage is if you need to transmit wireless signal over a very long range without the signal going all over. Such as a person that is quite wealthy, they may have their own private island and want internet connectivity, but does not want to go with satellite internet and wired connectivity is out of the question.Another advantage is that if you are located in a building where wireless signal is very hard to get, a highly-directional signal may be the answer because since it is so focused in such a small narrow margin it may be able to basically blast through the wall. The main disadvantage is that the dish antenna is subject to damage from weather, especially if not mounted correctly. Highly directional antennas, for the most part, require a clear line-of-sight between ends. Your NameJeret Burnett NETW360, Professor’s Name Mario  Kosseifi Current Date July 15, 2012 Lab #2 Part 2, RF Behavior Lab ReportDetermining the behavior of an RF signal can be an aid when troubleshooting a WLAN that does not function properly. In this project you will use several online calculators to computer the RF behavior. 4. 30dBm 7. 8. 4 11. -81. 538 19. -5. 474469367710745 |Name |Power Output | |Cell Phone |. 6 W | |Cordless phone |10 mW | |Garage Door Opener |100 W |

How is the alphabet stored Essay

Abstract Alphabetic retrieval is a prototypical task that is studied to gain insight into how humans learn and process long lists. We shall study two conï ¬â€šicting models of this process: serial search and direct association. To distinguish between these models, we shall derive predictions about priming eï ¬â‚¬ects that occur when items are paired. In a new experiment, we measure these priming eï ¬â‚¬ects. Although the small data set does not allow strong conclusions, it shows that a pure associational model alone is too simplistic. How is the alphabet stored? How do people retrieve letters from the alphabet? Diï ¬â‚¬erent accounts of how humans store and access the alphabet, or other long lists with little explicit structure, have been proposed. A good model must be able to explain human performance, and especially reaction times (RTs), in experimental tasks. Tasks that have been studied in experiments include: reciting the alphabet from a speciï ¬ c letter, saying the next letter, judging whether two letters are in the correct alphabetic order, etc. All these experiments have found an increase in reaction times towards the end of the alphabet, as well as a distinctive pattern of peaks and valleys across the alphabet. In this paper we shall focus on this alphabetic retrieval task: A letter (the probe) is presented visually, and the subject has to say either the following or preceding letter in the alphabet. In the forward condition, the subject has to say the next letter in the alphabet. In the backward cond ition, the subject has to say the preceding letter. A pattern relating to this task is shown in Figure 1. Note how the location of peaks and valleys is consistent between the forward and backward tasks. Models of alphabetic retrieval: serial search vs. direct  association Klahr, Chase, and Lovelace (1983) propose a serial search-model of alphabetic retrieval. To ï ¬ nd the letter following or preceding a probed letter, the subject has to ‘recite’ the alphabet from a speciï ¬ c ‘entry point’ until the probe letter is found (or one further to ï ¬ nd the answer, in the forward search task). The reaction time depends on the time needed to ï ¬ nd the entry point and the number of steps from the entry point to the probe letter. According to the direct association model of Scharroo, Leeuwenberg, Stalmeier, and Vos (1994a), no serial search is necessary. Letters have direct associations with their successors, and the strength of this association determines the reaction time. Figure 1: Reaction times (Scharroo et al. 1994a) Forward vs. backward search The model of Klahr et al. (1983) applies to both forward and backward searching. Scharroo et al. (1994a) leave open the possibility of serial search in the backward condition, while rejecting serial search in the forward condition, because the alphabet is learnt in the forward direction only, and direct associations with predecessors might not be available. However they also state that their experiment does not support the serial search model even for the backward condition, and that the Klahr et al. model has little value in explaining their results. So their position on serial search in the backward condition is not entirely clear. A reply to Scharroo et al.’s work (Klahr 1994) proposes that a new model should be developed, which should combine both the serial search and the direct association model. If a suï ¬Æ'ciently strong association between letters is available, this association is used; otherwise a serial search is performed. The article does not specify when such a direct association will be available, but the distinction between the forward and backward tasks seems a plausible candidate. However, in Scharroo’s rejoinder (Scharroo 1994b), she states she sees little  use in such an arbitrary combination of models. A pure associational model is suï ¬Æ'cient to explain the data, and a serial search component has little to add. The position in this article seems more radical than in the 1994a article because even in the backward search task it does not allow for a serial search process. Unfortunately, no account is given of how people learn backward associations between letters. Experiments have consistently shown higher reaction times in the backward task than in the forward task, which implies that a backward association is weaker than a forward association. Chunks According to Klahr and others who think humans use a list-structure to store the alphabet, the alphabet cannot be learnt directly, because it exceeds the capacity of working memory. The diï ¬â‚¬erent subgroups in which the alphabet is divided during learning, and also during subsequent storage, are called chunks. When a chunk boundary must be crossed to ï ¬ nd the answer to a test item, this results in signiï ¬ cantly longer reaction times. To Klahr et al., chunks are also the preferred entry points for initiating a serial search: a search will always start from the ï ¬ rst letter of a chunk. To Scharroo et al., a chunk is â€Å"just a series of letters with strong associations, enclosed between weak associations† (Scharroo et al. 1994a, p. 239). Individual diï ¬â‚¬erences In Klahr’s experiments with American subjects, he ï ¬ nds a strong interpersonal agreement on chunk boundaries. This segmentation coincides with the phrasing of the nursery song through which the alphabet is taught in American schools. Scharroo et al. however, in their experiment with Dutch subjects, ï ¬ nd larger diï ¬â‚¬erences between subjects. They argue that this probably reï ¬â€šects the absence of a common method to teach the alphabet in the Netherlands. In both experiments interpersonal agreement on chunk boundaries decreases towards the end of the alphabet and chunk sizes towards the end of the alphabet are smaller. Increasing RTs across the alphabet Overall reaction times increase towards the end of the alphabet, and so do the RTs at the local minima that, in the serial search model, represent the beginning of chunks. According to Klahr et al., this increase in local minima occurs because access to entry points is slower for chunks later in the alphabet. In their account, this is explained by a serial search through all chunks to ï ¬ nd the chunk containing the probe letter, which precedes the search within the chunk. Scharroo et al.’s model (1994a) does not model increasing RTs at all, although in the 1994b article a parameter is added for this. They state that the overall RT increase is due to a primacy eï ¬â‚¬ect: the beginning of the alphabet has been repeated more often, therefore the associations between the letters are stronger at the beginning. They do not ï ¬ nd an increase in local minima in the results of individual test subjects, rather they claim that the increase in the aggregate data is a result of averaging. Because the chunks are smaller towards the end of the alphabet and because variability between persons is greater, averaging results in increasing local minima. Although we will have to take into account this increase in RTs across the alphabet, my experiment is not designed to decide between diï ¬â‚¬erent explanations for this increase. We will focus on (possible) serial search within chunks only. Predictions for priming Given the diï ¬â‚¬erence between American and Dutch subjects, it is hard to decide which model ï ¬ ts the experimental data better. Therefore, we will derive new predictions about how priming can inï ¬â€šuence RTs. The results might help decide which model is correct. The task is the same as described earlier: the subject is presented a letter and has to say either the next or the preceding letter in the alphabet. However, items will be  paired to form prime-target combinations. For convenience, we will always refer to the ï ¬ rst item of such a combination as the prime, regardless of whether we think this item causes priming or not. An example would be the combination D−, F −. The prime item is D− (the − indicating that the task is to say the letter before the D) followed by a target item F −. The RT on this target item is compared to the RT on the same target item when preceded by an item O−. If the RT on the target item is signiï ¬ cantly faster for the ï ¬ rst combination than for the second, we can say that the D− item somehow primes the F − item. We will distinguish three models, based on the described literature. For each model we will describe what predictions for priming can be derived from it. The examples assumes that the letters A to F are all in the same chunk. SS (strong serial search) Always serial search, both in the forward and backward condition. This corresponds with the Klahr. et al (1983) model.  A prime item C+ or D− will always cause someone to ‘recite’ from the beginning of the chunk until the prime is reached (it doesn’t matter whether the next or the preceding letter is asked): â€Å"A, B, C, D†, assuming the chunk starts at A. This will activate all the letters from A to D. For a subsequent target F −, the subject will need to search the series A to F . However, this search should be faster because many of the letters have been activated. The right entry point (rather trivial in this case: A) should also be found faster because it is still active. We could even argue that the search doesn’t have to start at A, but can start where the preceding search left of, at D. Whatever the precise mechanism, we expect a priming eï ¬â‚¬ect, both when the prime item is + and when it is −. If there is a chunk boundary between prime and target, no priming can occur. But averaged over all letters of the alphabet, we still expect a priming eï ¬â‚¬ect. DA (direct association) Always direct association, both in the forward and in the backward condition. This corresponds with the Scharroo et al. model. Although they claim to ï ¬ nd  a serial search in the backward condition plausible (1994a), this is not incorporated in the formal model (Scharroo et al. 1994a). Scharroo later takes the position that a combination of models adds no explanatory leverage (Scharroo 1994b). When we refer to DA, we mean a pure associational model. To ï ¬ nd the letter preceding or following the prime, only the association between these two letters needs to be activated. This will not eï ¬â‚¬ect the subsequent target item, unless the target item or its answer is identical to one of these activated letters. Therefore, there is no priming except identity priming (i.e. a prime and target are identical, or ask for identical answers). FABS (forward association, backward search) A simple combination of both models. To ï ¬ nd the next letter, direct association is used. To ï ¬ nd a preceding letter, a forward serial search is initiated. The entry point for this serial search is the beginning of a chunk. If the prime item demands a serial search (in the backward condition) the subsequent forward associations will be primed. This priming will aï ¬â‚¬ect the RT of the target 4 prime − prime + priming D− F− C+ F− no priming P− F− P+ F− Table 1: Conditions: example  item if it is in the backward condition, by the same reasoning as for SS. It will not aï ¬â‚¬ect the RT of the target item if it is in the forward condition (at least not if the prime preceded the target in the alphabetic order), since the forward task does not involve a serial search. If the prime item is in the forward condition, only the direct association between the prime and its following letter is activated. If the target is in the forward condition too, our expectations are the same as for direct association. If the target is backward, the activated association would slightly speed up the serial search, if this association is part of the series being searched (which is the case if the prime preceeds the target in the alphabet). Experiment Item design Because Klahr himself has proposed a hybrid model, our design does not test all possible circumstances in which priming can occur according to SS. Rather, it tries to distinguish between pure association and any form of search (SS or FABS). Therefore, the target is always asked backward. The prime can be both forward and backward. This leads to a matrix of four conditions. Table 1 gives an example of each condition, with all examples using the same target. The conditions always use the same distance between prime and target, as explained below: no priming, prime − (np−) : the ‘prime’ is the 10th letter after the target (if the target is between B and P ), or the 15th letter before the target (if the target is between P and Z). Because this distance is larger than any proposed chunk size, there can be no priming eï ¬â‚¬ect. no priming, prime + (np+) : the same as np−, but this time the prime is +. priming, prime − (p−) : the prime is the 2nd letter before the target. This  is the minimum distance needed to ensure that the answer to the target does not overlap with the prime (either the prime letter itself or its answer). priming, prime + (p+) : the prime is the 3rd letter before the target. Again, this distance is necessary to prevent overlap between prime and target. Note that for the same target in conditions p− and p+, the prime involves the same pair of letters (but which letter is the question and which is the answer diï ¬â‚¬ers). Using these distances, we generated prime-target pairs for every target from B− to Z− for the no-priming conditions and from D− to Z− for the priming conditions. To these items, ï ¬ llers were added to achieve the following checks and balances: 1. the + and − operator occur equally often for each letter (except A and Z), 2. sequences of the same operator (at most three in a row) occur equally often for each operator, 3. in the p+ and p− conditions, the prime is never primed itself. We organised our items with ï ¬ llers in sequences of 3 or 4 letters. The sequences could be reordered without violating the third condition. Every subject received a diï ¬â‚¬erent, random ordering of sequences. Predictions for our 4 conditions It should be obvious that we cannot assume that a +− and a −− combination will have the same RTs on the second item. Therefore, a direct comparison between np− and np+, and between p− and p+ is problematic. There are three diï ¬â‚¬erent possibilies: 1. If there is no priming, the previous operator does not inï ¬â€šuence performance on the next operator. (If there is priming, the previous operator might inï ¬â€šuence performance, in so far as diï ¬â‚¬erent operators cause diï ¬â‚¬erent search processes.) 2. If there is no priming, performance on the target will be slower if the subject has to switch to a diï ¬â‚¬erent task (i.e. a diï ¬â‚¬erent operator). Therefore, np− is faster than np+. 3. If there is no priming, slow performance on the prime will spill over as slow performance on the target. Since − is slower than +, performance on the target will be slower for np− than for np+. We can compare np− and np+ to get an idea of the size and direction of the  previous operator inï ¬â€šuence. We can then use this to correct the RTs for p− and p+. Assuming that there is no previous operator inï ¬â€šuence, the diï ¬â‚¬erent models would make the following predictions on the rank order of the conditions, where > means ‘higher target RT / slower’ and < means ‘lower target RT / faster’: DA: FABS: SS: np− = np+ = p− = p+ p− < p+ < (np− = np+) (p− = p+) < (np− = np+) Assuming nothing about the previous operator inï ¬â€šuence, not even that its direction is consistent across priming and non priming conditions, we can only predict a partial rank ordering: DA: FABS: SS: np− = p−, np+ = p+ p− < np−, p+ < np+ p− < np−, p+ < np+ The diï ¬â‚¬erences between SS and FABS in these predictions are very minor, as we have not added items with a forward target. Method The subjects were 15 psychology undergraduates, participating for course credit. They youngest was 18 and the oldest was 24. There were 8 females and 7 males. 12 subjects spoke Dutch as a child both at home and at primary school. One subject spoke Frisian at home and Dutch at primary school. One  subject spoke German both at home and at primary school. The items were presented on a computer screen. After the subject pressed the space bar to start each trial, a + or − sign was shown for 0.5 seconds at the center of the screen, then the operator disappeared and a capital letter was shown at the same location. Subjects were to press the spacebar as soon as they knew the answer. They then were shown a question mark and had to type the answer. By letting subjects press the spacebar before typing the answer, we aimed to prevent a confounding inï ¬â€šuence from the diï ¬â‚¬erent letter positions on the computer keyboard. Subjects were instructed to use only their index ï ¬ ngers, so movements had to be sequential. To discourage subjects from pressing the space bar prematurely, the question mark would disappear after 2 seconds. Subjects received no feedback on the correctness of their response, but they knew the response was being recorded. The experiment took about 4 x 10 minutes. Subjects were oï ¬â‚¬ered a break at three times during the experiment, and were free to determine the duration of the break. Results One subject was excluded from our analyses because he had a remarkably high error rate (18% overall, but 30% on − operator). Because we required for our analyses of priming that both the prime and the target are correct, half of the data for this subject was unusable. For the remaining subjects, the error rate varied from 1.7% to 9.5% overall, with a mean of 6.8%. For the − operator alone, the error rate varied from 2.0% to 17.6%, with a mean of 10.9%. Since these error rates are rather high, we have looked into possible causes of these errors. For 62.8% of errors, the response given was actually a correct response, but for the wrong operator. Subjects never saw the operator and the letter at the same time, and this appears to have caused  many errors. For another 15.5% of errors, no response was given within 2 seconds. Whether this is because the subject wasn’t fast enough to type the answer, or because he forgot the operator and decided not the respond, we don’t know. For 12.5% of errors, the response was two letters away from the presented letter, instead of just one. For the remaining errors, either the presented letter was repeated as the response, or a response was given that had so little to do with the question that we assume it was a typing mistake. Items with reaction times of less than 0.3 seconds or more than 10 seconds have been ï ¬ ltered out.  We have analysed reaction times per item for all items (including ï ¬ llers), without looking at priming yet. Figure 2 shows the reaction time (averaged over all subjects) for each letter. The solid line represents the forward task, while the dashed line represents the backward task. Letter position 1 represents A+ and B−, while position 25 represents Y + and Z−. This alignment best shows the correspondence of peak and valleys between the two tasks. Figure 3 shows 2 graphs of individual subjects. These ï ¬ gures illustrate the large 7 Figure 2: Reaction times per letter Figure 3: Reaction times per letter, individual subjects np+ 1749 ms p− 1772 ms np− 1832 ms p+ 1833 ms Table 2: Average RT per condition  individual diï ¬â‚¬erences between subjects. Our averaged ï ¬ gure looks less smooth than the Scharroo et al. (1994a) graph that we reproduced in ï ¬ gure 1, but Scharroo et al. used more subjects (40). We think our averaged ï ¬ gure is consistest with the eï ¬â‚¬ects described in literature, especially with respect to the pattern of peaks and valleys and the congruence between the forward and backward tasks. The individual diï ¬â‚¬erences we ï ¬ nd are not out of line with Scharroo et al. (1994a), who used Dutch subjects as we did. We cannot compare with Klahr et al. (1983) because they did not show individual results. To analyse the eï ¬â‚¬ect of priming, we looked at the reaction time of the target letter as a function of the condition. The (intersubject) average per condition is shown in Table 2. Note that p− < np−, but also that p+ > np+, which does not match any of the (partial) rank orderings predicted earlier. The direction of the previous operator eï ¬â‚¬ect, with p− < np−, but p+ > np+, is not consistent. The diï ¬â‚¬erences are not signiï ¬ cant, however. If the diï ¬â‚¬erences were signiï ¬ cant, they would indicate an interaction between previous operator and priming, that causes priming to be slower than non-priming for the + operator. We used the statistical package R to create a linear mixed eï ¬â‚¬ect model of the data. The variable to be explained was the logarithm of the reaction time. The dependent variables were: †¢ The sequence number of the item in the experiment. This lets us model the learning that occurs during the experiment. †¢ The position of the letter in the alphabet, encoded as a factor. †¢ Priming: true in the p+ and p− conditions. †¢ The operator of the previous letter. †¢ All two-way interactions between priming, previous operator, and sequence number. †¢ The subject. For every subject, a distinct error stratum was used. We then stepped through the possible simpliï ¬ cations of this model to ï ¬ nd the  model with the lowest AIC value. This model contains the dependent variables sequence number, letter position, previous operator, and an interaction between previous operator and sequence number. As expected, there was a negative correlation between sequence number and reaction time, indicating a learning eï ¬â‚¬ect during the experiment. The interaction between previous operator and sequence number means that there is more learning when the previous operator is − than when it is +. An ANOVA-analysis of this model showed that sequence number, letter position, and the interaction between previous operator and sequence were all highly signiï ¬ cant at the p < 0.001 level. The previous operator alone was not signiï ¬ cant, however (p = 0.3254). Our computer model does not include priming: priming does not help explain the reaction times better. Discussion We have not been able to ï ¬ nd a signiï ¬ cant eï ¬â‚¬ect of priming. However, the conclusion that there is no priming is not warranted. The eï ¬â‚¬ect of the previous operator is not signiï ¬ cant either, even though it is included in the model with the best AIC-value, and an interaction with this eï ¬â‚¬ect is signiï ¬ cant. Because of the pattern of peaks and valleys across the alphabet, it was necessary to treat the letter position as a factor, instead of as a continuous variable. This means that the data is modelled per letter, per condition, per subject, which requires a very large data set. We think that further research with a larger subject pool is useful. Such further research should also review the item design, to prevent correlations between priming and other possible factors as much as possible. Our experiment has shown that using a computer keyboard as input device gives results comparable to using a voice key. This means experiments can be  conducted with standard computer hardware. We think it is prudent for future research using this alphabetic retrieval task, even if priming is not its object, to control for possible priming and for the previous operator. References [1] David Klahr, William G. Chase, and Eugene A. Lovelace (1983) Structure and Process in Alphabetic Retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 9 (3), 462-477. [2] Jackie Scharroo, Emanuel Leeuwenberg, Peep F. M. Stalmeier, and Piet G. Vos (1994) Alphabetic Search: Comment on Klahr, Chase, and Lovelace (1983). Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20 (1), 236-244. [3] David Klahr (1994) Plausible Models of Alphabetic Search: Reply to Scharroo, Leeuwenberg, Stalmeier, and Vos (1994). Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20 (1), 245-249. [4] Jackie Scharroo (1994) Modeling Alphabetic Retrieval: Rejoinder to Klahr (1994). Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20 (2), 492-495.